Stellar symbolism and solar symbolism

di Andrew Casella
cover: "The zodiac and the planets"Β by Bartholomeus Anglicus, taken from De proprietatibus rerum, Ahun 1480

[follows from Cyclic time and its mythological meaning: the precession of the equinoxes and the tetramorphΒ eΒ A Science in Tatters: Survival of the Doctrines of Cyclic Time from the Timaeus to the Apocalypse]

To resume the common thread of the images that we introduced in the first two appointments of this cycle, in the light of the previous considerations, it might be useful to quote a passage from Norse mythology.

The passage is a quotation contained in Footprints of the gods (pp. 262 - 263), by G. Hancock:

"The wolf Fenrir, whom the gods had long ago chained with extreme accuracy, broke the bonds and then fled. He shook and the world shook. The Yggdrasil ash - i.e. the Axis of the World (but this concept must be understood in an extended sense, as a complete armillary sphere) - he was shaken from the roots to the highest branches. Mountains crumbled or split from top to bottom and the gnomes, who had their own underground abodes within those, searched desperately and in vain the entrances they had known for a long time but now found no more. Abandoned by the gods, men were expelled from the hearths and mankind was wiped off the face of the earth. Even the earth was beginning to lose its shape. The stars were already drifting from the sky and plunging into the abyssal void. They were like swallows that, tired from too long a journey, fall and sink in the waves. The giant Surt set fire to all the earth; " [we will later analyze the extent of this "burning of the earth" in relation to other myths] "Now the universe was reduced to an immense furnace ... The land sank under the sea. But not all men perished in the great catastrophe. Enclosed in the wood of the Yggdrasil ash, which the devouring flames of the universal conflagration had not been able to destroy, the ancestors of a future race of men had escaped death ... And so from the destruction of the ancient world a new one was born. Gradually the land emerged from the waves. Mountains rose again, and from them floods of gurgling water began to flow".

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The Γ†sir host battles the wolf Fenrir.

It is clear, therefore, that here we are not speaking at all of a material earth, nor of a tree, nor of the sea, nor of ordinary mountains. Here the story of an astronomical upheaval is told, which leaves only the pivotal axis of the circumpolar constellations intact. This same event has its echo in India in the form of the rescue, by Matsya-Avatara, of Satyavrata and the Seven Rishis, that is, of the Polar Star and the Big Dipper, around which the "catastrophe" takes place (in Satpatha Brahmana [I, 282] it is written: β€œThe Seven Rishis were in earlier times called the Riksha [bears]". It is remarkable that the Hindu tradition, for the astronomical significance of its symbols, identifies a more primordial age than all the others).

It cannot go unnoticed, however, that the ways of rescuing men within the Yggdrasil are very reminiscent, on the one hand, of those of Noah and his followers (moreover eight in number, as in India), and on the other hand, other those of Deucalion and Pyrrha, who also had to escape a "flood". The theme of the tree returns in Daniel's prophecies (Dn. 4, 10): a Vigilante comes down from heaven and shouts loudly:

"Cut down the tree and break its branches, shake its leaves and scatter its fruits; the animals flee below him and the birds from among his branches. However, the stump of its roots leave it in the ground, tied with a iron and copper chain in the grass of the field".

Similarly, on the other side of the world, the Aztecs and the Maya spoke of the Flood of the fourth age (called 4Atl, where Atl stands for "water"), which gave birth to the Fifth Sun (Footprints of the gods, p. 263):

"4Atl was ended by the floods. The mountains disappeared… Two people survived because they received the order from a god of dig a hole in the trunk of a very large tree and slip inside as soon as the skies came down".

Remaining for a moment in the South American context, it could be interesting to reflect on this news from Diego de Landa, again reported by Hancock:

"Among the countless gods worshiped by this people [the Maya] there were four that they called Bacab. These were, they say, four brothers which God, when He created the world, placed at its four corners to support the heavens so that they would not fall. They also say that these Bacabs they fled when the world was destroyed by a flood".

It is impossible not to see, as the Author notes, in these four brothers the constellations of the four cardinal points of the equinoxes and solstices, which "flee" when the previous "earth" "sinks" under the sea. They are animated, they never stand still (being condemned by the extreme mobility of the ecliptic), which is why the Apocalypse calls them "Living" [cf. Cyclic time and its mythological meaning: the precession of the equinoxes and the tetramorph].

A rescue with a partially different flavor (because it is contaminated by recent suggestions of a solar nature) comes to us from the myth of Osiris (and this, moreover, disproves those who tend to make Manichean distinctions between a "stellar" tradition and a "solar" tradition, where these, on the contrary, are found mixed, in the most recent traditions, in an almost inextricable way). As Plutarch relates (cf. Isis and Osiris by. 15), Set, with a ruse, managed to lock the hated brother Osiris in a wooden coffin and threw him into the sea:

β€œThe coffin, pushed out of the sea near the Byblos coast, with the help of the waves had gently landed in a heather meadow; the heather, then, in a short time had grown into a beautiful, thriving bush, which clung to the coffin and wrapped itself around it, completely hiding it inside. The king of that region was amazed by the size of the plant: he had the stem that wrapped the coffin cut, without however noticing its presence, and placed it as column for the roof of his house".

The image of the coffin set in the tree is perfectly superimposable to those that see Yggdrasil and the ark of Satyavrata as protagonists.

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Lo skhamba-armillary-cosmic-sphere in a sixteenth-century print.

Observe Graham Hancock (cf. Submerged civilizations, p. 199):

"Two areas of the sky were favored by the ancient Egyptians for rebirth in the form of a star - the region of the constellation of Orion [defined, in the Zodiac of Dendera, "splendid divine soul of Osiris"] in the southern sky, and the region of circumpolar stars, which never set, 'Imperiture' - especially Kochab in Ursa Major [possible typo: actually in Ursa Minor (β Ursae Minoris), see note 1] - in the northern sky. Regarding a circumpolar destiny we read in Expression 419 of the Pyramid Texts: 'Arise ... arise that you may travel in company with spirits ... Cross the sky ... Take your abode among the imperishable stars' ".

At theΒ  Sioux the Big Dipper assumes very strange connotations, since they see a coffin accompanied by mourners. Even more surprising is that it is among the Arabs "Banat na's" (name also attributed to Ξ· Ursae MajorisΒ [see note 2], Benetnasch, in fact), that is the coffin and its daughters. The coffin is made up of the carriage box and the rudder represents the daughters.

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At this point, it is permissible to see the coffin of Osiris mourned by Isis in the Big Dipper. The Ursa Major has, in fact, unsuspected connections with the underground world and with the afterlife: in fact, in ancient times, the solstitial coluro (in mythical jargon "the suspension of the sky") started from it and passed through the Orsa-Sirio axis. Sirius (whose heliacal rising on July 19, in full "heat wave", marked the beginning of the Egyptian year) is the star-dog, "guardian" of the underworld. Giorgio de Santillana notes (Ancient fate and modern fate, p. 170):

β€œSirius appears to have been a kind of pivot of several intersecting lines, starting from different regions of the sky. The main alignment was that which placed Sirius on the line that joins the poles and which ended, in the south, in Canopus, another great fascinating star, the seat of Yama Agastya for the Hindus, the mythical city of Eridu for the Sumerians, Suhayl-la- Heavy for the Arabs, as it marked the bottom of the "celestial sea" of the southern hemisphere. The other alignments connected Sirius to the "four corners of the sky", equinoxes and solstices, which moved imperceptibly over the centuries of the Precession, and the North Pole line passed over the stars of the Bear one after the other, like a hand on an immense dial ".

All this starting from about 4000 BC, at a time when the Big Dipper found itself occupying a much more polar position than it does today. The Big Dipper was called by the Babylonians "Bond of Heaven" (the Greeks also called it Cinosura, the "dog's tail").

It must be understood: the axis of the world, in astronomy, is not a minimalist concept: it is, on the contrary, the synoptic diagram of the intersection of all the main celestial lines (the golden strings of the sky); and therefore: the axis of the world proper (which connects the celestial poles), the celestial equator, the ecliptic, the axis of the ecliptic (which connects the two poles of the ecliptic), and the two colors, equinoctial and solstitial: the first passes through the celestial poles and the equinoctial points, the second through the celestial poles, the poles of the ecliptic and the solstitial points. We must imagine all this exactly as an armillary sphere. The coordinates of this armillary sphere, however, constantly change as the precession proceeds, with the result of continually upsetting the gear. When this skhamba (the axis of the world according to the Hindu doctrine) "falls apart", due to the influence of the precession, the sidereal references of before are put aside [cf. A Science in Tatters: Survival of the Doctrines of Cyclic Time from the Timaeus to the Apocalypse].

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The ship of Argos, whose rudder-oar is Canopus.

This extreme mobility prevents us from giving a precise physiognomy in relation to a specific era, and we can do nothing but reconstruct some "pieces". A fundamental axis (or cord), as mentioned, seems to have been precisely the solstitial one Orsa - Orion - Sirius - Canopus (Ξ± Carinae), a sort of road traced from the world of the living to the realm of the dead. The entrance to Hades was obviously located near the equator, where the important "underworld" stars of Orion, Canis Major and Eridanus are found. Sirius, placed on the exact line of the horizon (plane of demarcation between the β€œemerged” earth and the sea of ​​the β€œunderworld”), seems to be guarding Hades: in fact, Anubis, the psychopomp god, is associated with it. According to Plutarch (Isis and Osiris, para. 44):

"Neftys [bride of Set] it is what is under the earth and is invisible, Isis [bride of Osiris] instead it is what is above the earth and is visible. The circle that touches these two extremes, called the horizon, being common to both, takes the name of Anubis, and is represented with the image of a dog ".

Also according to Plutarch, Anubis (based on certain traditions) would also be identified with Kronos-Saturn, presenting characteristics at the same time Olympian and chthonic. The real seat of Hades, moreover, is a little further south of Sirius, in Canopus, in the constellation of the ship of Argos, of which it constitutes the oar-rudder. The Egyptians, always reports Plutarch, identified it with the boat of Osiris that made its journey into the underworld. Osiris, therefore, with his "coffin" in the Big Dipper (note, and passant, which the Egyptians called the soul of Set "Bear") ideally descends to the underworld where he is placed on the boat of the "underworld" Sun, Saturn (according to Babylonian astrology, Saturn is the nocturnal substitute for the Sun), to judge the dead . In this he is clearly the Egyptian Kronos (of which Anubis is the hypostasis of connection between the "above" and the "below").

canopusΒ [cf. Divinity of the Underworld, the Afterlife and the Mysteries], the rudder-oar of Argos, is the seat of immortality common to innumerable traditions (it is Eridu among the Sumerians, it is OgygiaΒ [see note 3] among the Greeks, it is Eiren among the Persians etc.), because it is located in an area of ​​the sky (the southern pole of the ecliptic) not influenced by the precession of the equinoxes. The changes of the skhamba-armillary-cosmic sphere never interest this region, whose relative "fixity" was easily declined in terms of "immortality": these are the immovable roots of the cosmic tree, this is the place where the flow of the temporal river stops ; concept expressed among the Sumerians with pi-narati, β€œConfluence of rivers”.

We certainly do not ignore that the Big Dipper, for the Egyptians of the classical period, is actually the constellation of the Thigh (so it is represented, for example, in the Zodiac of Dendera), but this being alternatively or the Thigh of the Bull, or the Thigh of Aries, reveals its relations with the Sun, with which Osiris was later associated. A clear distinction cannot be made between stellar symbolism and solar symbolism (albeit later), since all "celestial interpretations" are valid in relation to each era. Osiris, in more ancient times, was the primordial Kronos-Saturn: it is inherent in a symbolism (which we call "stellar") directly related to skhamba-armillary-cosmic-sphere, in whose domain the Sun gave the "throne" of the ecliptic to its "brother" Saturn, the most "elevated" among the planets (it must be understood that Osiris and Set are only two masks of the same face). Later, when the "concern" for precession became less pressing (although we do not know the exact reason), the Sun came to occupy the throne it had been before kosmokrator Saturn (finally exiled forever down to hell): here then (we are in full "history") the symbolism "degrades" from stellar (or sidereal) to solar, adopting as a "chronometer" no longer the Great Precessional Year, but the simple tropic year. At this point Osiris is nothing but the Sun, which during the year travels its apparent course along the ecliptic, dying and reborn with the changing of the seasons.

READ MOREΒ  "Hamlet's Mill": the archaic language of myth and the structure of time
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The giant Orion, from whose left foot the river Eridano "gushes". In India he is the Kala-Purusha (Man of Time), or Vishnu-Narayana (He who walks on water).

On the other hand, the same constellation of Scorpio is presented as an infernal and deadly symbol for alternately "stellar" and "solar" reasons: considered in relation to the skhamba it is a symbol of death because it is located on the exact intersection between the ecliptic and the galaxy (along the Milky Way the souls waiting to be reincarnated according to the Pythagoreans and the Pawnee Indians gathered); considered instead in relation to the tropic year, it represents death since it rose eliacally at the autumn equinox in opposition to Taurus, announcing the death of the sun and its winter descent into the underworld, under the sea.

Now, it cannot be excluded that in the most remote times men still retained the key to the interpretation of their most ancient traditions based on precession. It is also possible that the ancient astronomical science was conveyed by means of initiatory chains to a select few (the catechism of the acousmatics in the Pythagorean circle would be a prime example). However, for the generality of people the "soul of the myth" was irremediably precluded: they no longer saw, in those stories, (like us moderns, for that matter) but moralizing tales and the like. Nonetheless, now mute β€œpieces” of those ancestral and immemorial traditions could continue and also be used later to enrich the fabula and the intertwining of narratives of different spirit, perhaps epic. Emblematic cases are some passages of the Homeric poems which, embedded in the general narrative, are not likely to arouse suspicion, but which are immediately revealed when compared with mythologues of the same tenor drawn from different traditions.

Here is a passage from Snorri's poetic Edda, which he tells of two sisters, Fenja and Menja, forced to turn the grindstone of the immense FrΓ²di mill (or AmlΓ²di, the β€œtitanic” ancestor of Saxo Grammaticus's Hamlethus), called Grotti (β€œcrusher”). It should be noted that (even if the mill is owned by a man) those who physically turn the wheel are women, two β€œtitanesse” whose impulse, obviously given with the hands, is able to set the gear in motion. Could all this have a connection with the name attributed by the Pythagoreans to the two Bears (Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras, para. 44), that is Hands of Rea? Rea, wife of Kronos, is another name of mother Earth, and this, reported to the exact environment of uranography, is, as is now well known, the ecliptic. She is the one who, through the β€œhandles” of the two Bears, she makes the cosmic mill turn. Anyway, the passage in question is a lamentation by Menja, who, one night, while everyone is asleep, stops furious at the workload and says:

"The hands must rest and the wheels must stop; I have already ground my share! I will not give a rest to the hands yet; until we have ground everything for FrΓ²di! Now the hands will hold the hard spears, the bloody weapons. Wake up, FrΓ²di! If you want to listen to our songs and ancient sayings. I see fire burning east of the fortress, news of war is heard. It is a warning. Horde of armed here hastens to set the King's abode ablaze. You will no longer be seated on the throne of Hleidr to reign over golden armillas and the mill. Now we have to grind harder and harder, girls, no heat will we get from the blood of the slain. Let's grind again! Yrsa's son will avenge Halfdan's death on FrΓ²di".

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Fenja and Menja bring out the army against FrΓ³di from the millstone.

Menja raises her song, which is also an invocation of revenge against the one who chained her to the Grotti. It is night, everyone is asleep. Surprisingly (but at this point, not so much) in the XX book of theOdyssey (vv. 103 - 119) a very similar scene takes place. Ulysses, as soon as he landed in Ithaca with the favor of darkness (here too it is night and everyone is immersed in sleep), and made unrecognizable by Athena, invokes Zeus to send him a sign of good luck from heaven, before consummating his revenge against the Suits:

"And suddenly he thundered from the shining Olympus, above, from the clouds: bright Odysseus rejoiced. And words spoke from the house a woman at the nearby mill, where the millstones of the shepherd of armies were; Twelve women in all actively looked after it in making barley and wheat flour, the men's marrow. The others slept, having already ground their share of grain; only one was not finished: the weakest was. This, stopping the millstone, spoke a word, and it was a sign to the king: β€œFather Zeus, who reigns over gods and men, thundered very loudly from the starry sky, and there is no cloud; so you show someone a sign. Oh! Do the word I say to me too wretched: today for the last time of Odysseus in the house may the suitors enjoy a cheerful banquet, they who with fatigue, agony of the heart, melt my limbs to make flour: yes, for the last time feast".

It now appears evident that we are faced with deceptive images, which conceal astronomical events behind the appearance of daily actions: the millstone that turns around its hub is none other than the sky. Of similar mythologists, Santillana and Dechend, quoting Comparetti (cf. Hamlet's mill, p. 130), they speak in terms of β€œA mythical formation left without a narratable action”. This means that the fragment in question originally belonged to an alien context and that, having remained isolated from that due to a loss of memory, it was subsequently withdrawn and "embedded" as coherently as possible in a wider narrative. . Certain references to a precise cosmological science are not rare in Homer: they are found in the images of the Ursa Major and the Pleiades depicted on the shield of Achilles (Iliad, Book XVIII), in the journey of Ulysses to Hades (Odyssey, Book X), on the island of Syria (Odyssey, Book XV) and in the trial of the arch (Odyssey, Book XXI). We will have to focus on the latter later. Suffice it to say here that "Syria", which is normally associated with the hyperborean homeland by classical traditionalism, actually indicates a precise point of the southern ecliptic: the summit of the winter solstice on the Tropic of Capricorn, β€œWhere changes take place (letter returns) Of sun".

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The celestial region that includes Orion, Sirius, Eridanus and Canopus, the "confluence of the rivers".

Still recently, Cleomedes (De motu circulari corporum caelestium, I, 7) stated that in the northern latitudes the skies rotated "How does a millstone". This mill has a very significant name in Finnish myths, as it has been highlighted that Sampo is a word related to Sanskrit Shamba, the Hindu name of the axis of the world, already mentioned. Obviously, whenever the myth tells that this "mill" falls apart, the "catastrophes" we have discussed extensively occur.

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Finally, by taking the numbers into consideration, interesting discoveries can be made. Here, for the sake of brevity, we want to give a very quick flash.Β The fundamental numbers of the precession (derived from the myths of Osiris) are: 12 (the number of constellations of the zodiac); 30 (the number of degrees of each house of the zodiac along the ecliptic); 72 (the number of years taken by the equinoctial sun to complete the 1 Β° shift along the ecliptic), 360 (the number of total degrees of the ecliptic); 2160 (the number of years taken by the sun to cross a sign, or house, of the zodiac: 72 x 30); 25.920 (the Egyptian estimate of years required to complete a precession cycle, or "Great Year": 2160 x 12). To these are usually added another two: 36 (the number of years taken by the equinoctial sun to complete the half-degree shift along the ecliptic); 4320 (the number of years taken by the equinoctial sun to cross two signs, or houses, of the zodiac).

These numbers, or their combinations, come back in various traditions. The myth of Osiris speaks of 72 men who aided Seth in his plot. The Rigveda it is made up of 432.000 syllables (multiple of 4320) and 10.800 stanzas (multiple of 108, fundamental Hindu number, made up of the sum of 36 and 72). THE Puranas they say that a mortal year (made up of 360 days) corresponds to a day of the gods, so that a year of the gods equals 360 mortal years. It turns out that the Kali Yuga (the present epoch of decay) consists of 1200 years of the gods, and therefore 432.000 mortal years.Β  Strong is therefore the suspicion that behind the theoretical framework of the Manvantara Hindu is disguised (with subsequent contributions of a metaphysical nature) nothing more than the precession of the equinoxes.Β  Similarly, 432.000 warriors leave Walhalla to fight Fenrir and 432.000 are the years of reign of the mythical kings of Sumer before the flood according to Berossus.

But these fundamental numbers are not only the prerogative of the sacred texts. In Cambodia there is a monumental complex that could be defined as a real "hymn" to the precession: Angkor Wat. It has five gates, which are accessed by five roads that cross the moat surrounding the temple. Each street is lined with a row of gigantic stone statues: 108 on each street, 54 on each side: in all 540 (108 x 5) statues of Deva and Asura. In each row the figures hold an enormous nine-headed Naga snake; but rather than holding it, it is as if they were pulling it, reproducing the enigmatic "Churning of the Ocean of Milk" (an ocean represented, rather clumsily, by the moat full of water) carried out to obtain theamrita. Mount Mandara acts as a shovel and Vasuki, prince of the Naga, as a tie rod. Vasuki had willingly agreed to act as a tie, and like him the turtle Kurma, second avatar of Vishnu, who had offered to serve as a base. The astrological interpretation of Churning would be to be found in the definitive separation of the celestial equator (Father Heaven) from the ecliptic (mother Earth), at the end of the Golden Age (with the displacement of the "visible" equinoctial color away from the Milky Way ). "The whole Angkor" says Giorgio de Santillana (Hamlet's mill, p. 197) "This reveals a colossal model built to represent an alternating motion, where genuinely Indian imagination and incongruity oppose the idea of ​​a continuous one-way Precession from west to east".

The examples could go on and on. One has the impression of being in front of the pieces of a disconcerting puzzle, which comes to us from the mists of time. To use an effective image by Graham Hancock (Footprints of the gods, p. 338):

"When you analyze this type of material, you sometimes have the eerie feeling of being manipulated by an ancient intelligence that has found a way to reach us through immense spans of time, and for some reason has posed a puzzle to us. to be solved in the language of myth ".

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Lunar houses, Ottoman miniature, 1580.

Note:

  1. Taking as reference the front stars of the Ursa Minor, Kochab and Pherkad, we reach, through an ideal line, the ancient polar star of Thuban (Ξ± draconies), in the constellation of the Dragon. It must be said that Kochab in turn assumed, for a short period of time, the quality of polar star immediately after Thuban and shortly before the current Polaris. Its full name, in Arabic, isΒ Al-Kawkab al Shamaliyy, literally "The Northern Star".
  2. This star, together with Merak, is placed on the ideal axis that reaches Betelgeuse in the constellation of Orion. From here passed, approximately in the Age of Taurus, also the solstitial coluro, an integral part of the skhamba-armillary-cosmic-sphere.
  3. On this island, according to Plutarch (De facie in orbe lunae), Kronos would have fallen asleep. To be precise, he would sleep, prey to an invincible sleep (κώμα [Greek counterpart of avestic Haoma and the Middle Persian Hom]), "In a cave deep inside a gold-colored rock". Now, Ogygia (ΞΏΞΌΟ†Ξ±Ξ»ΟŒΟ‚ sea, "Navel of the sea" [and not "navel of the world", as erroneously written by GuΓ©non]) is anything but a real island. Its very location, "Five days of navigation from Britain to the west", it doesn't make any sense from a geographical point of view. It makes perfect sense, however, if we look at uranography, since the "oblique" shift towards the west (precisely in the west-north-west direction) with respect to the north celestial pole line, from the uranographic point of view, has the result of ideally positioning on the north pole axis of the ecliptic, navel of the sea, the dark sidereal vortex that enters "through the globe" in its symmetrical inferior terminal: the southern pole of the ecliptic, that is Tartarus, exile of Kronos and all the Titans. Ωγύγιος, "ogigio", is a classic epithet of the river Styx (see the Hesiodic expression Ξ£Ο„Ο…Ξ³ΟŒΟ‚ ύδωρ ωγύγιον, rendered as "the water primordial dello Styx "in Greek - Italian vocabulary, Loescher 2003, p. 2282). Now, again according to Hesiod, the Styx is "the tenth part" of the river Ocean, a name that, in Catasterisms of Eratosthenes, designates the southern constellation of Eridanus, which is also the "celestial" beginning of the Nile river. Note how the Baghavata Purana (V, 17) attribute the same characteristic to the Ganges: it is, in the beginning, a celestial river, which flows from Vishnu's big toe. The reason is simple: the "celestial" Nile and Ganges are the same thing, that is the constellation of Eridanus, the river of the dead, which flows from the "foot" of Orion (Ξ² Orionis, the star Rigel: in Arabic, in fact, "foot") and leads to the sojourn of immortality. The water of the Styx is normally fatal (it induces a swoon similar to the said death κώμα, identical to that of Kronos) except on a single day of the year, but no one knows which one, in which he is capable of bestowing immortality.

Bibliography:

  • Giorgio de Santillana - Hertha von Dechend: Hamlet's mill, Adelphi 2003
  • George de Santillana: Ancient fate and modern fate, Adelphi 1985
  • Charles - FranΓ§ois Dupuis: The origin of all cults (compendium), Martini 1862
  • Herbert von Klockler, Astrology course, Mediterranean 1998
  • Franz Boll - Carl Bezold: Interpretation and faith in the stars, Syllables 1999
  • Graham Hancock: Footprints of the godsCorbaccio 1996
  • Graham Hancock: Submerged civilizationsCorbaccio 2002
  • Porphyry: Life of PythagorasRusconi 1998
  • Plutarch: Isis and Osiris, Adelphi 1985
  • Plutarch: De facie in orbe lunae, Adelphi 1991
  • Pierre Grimal: Encyclopedia of myths, Garzanti 1990
  • RenΓ© GuΓ©non: Symbols of sacred science, Adelphi 1975

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